Interest groups Essay Example for Free

Interest groups EssayInterest groups are particular groups of individuals, which lobby for a specific interest in advancing their own field or discipline. In essence, these groups can be categorized as advocacy groups because they are created with a particular goal. They are advocating still for the betterment of their interest, and sometimes coordinate and form linkages with other institutions to further advance their advocacy. In other jargons, these groups are called air pressure groups because of their attempt to influence or skirt public policy for their own favor. They do it through lobbying in the congress, and sometimes even to the extent of creating party lists who go into the parliament. Each and every one of the pressure groups shares an ambition to impinge on government policy to do well to themselves or their foundations. It possibly will be a policy that absolutely benefits junto members or one sphere of influence of society or a policy that progress a broader communal reason. Interest groups are an ordinary consequence of the communities of welfare. The sector that is advanced by interest groups can be farmers for land tenure or industrialization.On the other hand, the wider society can be advanced by interest through the need of better air quality. Furthermore, the theory on political systems includes the essential business office public interest groups do in influencing enactment and the economy. In addition, public interest groups influence even the heads of the states. In the changes on 20th century politics, the presidency is affected by interest groups in the mien that if the president does not support a certain advocacy, he will be threatened not to get any support.In the recently cerebrate Philippine elections, the interest groups advancing the Reproductive Health Bill greatly dictate the choice of the people. The candidates for the presidency have been widely scrutinized based on their views close to reproductive health. I n the end, the candidate who impressed the sector advocating the Reproductive Health Bill, including the church, emerged victorious. Other than the propaganda work performed by interest groups, they also play an important role in political elections because of their influence on the civil society.The public opinion expressed by public interest groups dictate the characteristics of the political candidates and those who conform accordingly get the most support from these groups, which is, in fact, one of the glorious features of plurality and democracy. If the choices made turned out wrong, there is always the opportunity to rectify it by voting again in the next election and listening to other advocacies by public interest groups.In terms of the economy, economic interest groups are omnipresent and the most well-known in every country. there are accurately several of them with bureaus in state capitals from Manila to Lima to Bandar Seri Begawan to the United States of America. The re are more than a few diverse types of economic interests business groups like the Canadian Federation of Independent Business, the Confederation of British Industry, and the Nestle corporation (Brittanica Encyclopedia, 2010). Interest groups cannot do away with the society.Whatever their advocacies are, even how politicized it may seem, the masses is the primary stakeholder. They are under the cycle controlled by the political economic sphere. The vim of politics includes public interest groups in it. REFERENCES Contreras, A. P. (2002). Locating the political in the ecological Globalization, state-civil society articulations, and environmental governance in the Philippines. Quezon City De La Salle University print Press. interest group. Encyclop? dia Britannica. 2010.Encyclop? dia Britannica Online. 19 May. 2010 http//www. britannica. com/EBchecked/topic/290136/interest-group. Marsh, D. Stoker, G. (1999). Theory and methods in political science. College of Forestry and Natur al Resources Department of Social Forestry and Forest Governance reading room. Pulhin, J. M. Peras, R. J. J. (2009). SFFG 125 Part 2. Lecture. University of the Philippines Los Banos. Todaro, M. P. (1989). scotch development in the third world. (4th ed. ). New York Pitman publishing Inc.

How Did the Indsutrial Development Unite or Divide the North and the South Essay Example for Free

How Did the Indsutrial Development Unite or Divide the North and the South EssayDuring the Civil War, the advances of the industrial Revolution introduced great changes in the industrial and technological development. Both the North and the South created many advances in railroad and water transportation. The Union, however, was far more advanced technologically than the Confederate states . Consequently, the North made greater and more effective use of progress in weapons, communication, transportation and medicine than South . Although the industrial development made the nation very widely known, two the south and the north were divided because their differences. The Civil War was the first modern war that athletic supportered strengthen the technology and industrial system. But their industry and technology severalize the two sides, which represented different economic conditions. The North had developed a strong economy that was becoming day-by-day more industrialized. By the nineteenth century, large detailories and organizations sprang up throughout the north. Also, the nation of the country was increasing and immigrants from all over Europe came along. The North was becoming a huge success but the South was go behind.The North was rising in a higher success rate than the South. The Union flourished more factories and more transportation. Canals were being handmade, there was an increase of labor push back and there it was becoming more adequate to transport product through trains . Inventions were also becoming to life. For example, the electrify was becoming a extremely useful. Invented by Samuel F. B. Morse, the Telegraph was inexpensive to make and was nonesuch for long distance communication. The north had more advantages in growing the economy because it had twice as big as the population from the south.It had much greater man power and it had a better work force. Many factories from the north construct war material to supply to the U nion. However, slavery was diminish around the 1860s and factories were pouring in by the immigrants from Europe. In fact, seven out of every eight immigrants that traveled to the U. S. settled in the North sooner than the South. The economy in the North was also increasing therefore immigrants settled there to establish their own business. Northerners were far more likely to harbor careers in business, medicine, or education .Also, children were slightly more prone to attend school than Southern children. As for the South, the warm climate and the fertile soil made it ideal for farmers to grow significant amounts of crops. There were more abundant natural resources in the south and because agriculture was so profitable few Southerners saw a acquire for industrial development . There were no large cities aside from a few known places. to the highest degree of the known cities existed near shipping ports to send country produce to Northern destinations.However, the South had dif ficulty with transportation and most products were sent by water. Only a few train tracks were located in the South. In the other hand, Southern children tended to spend less time in school and most Southern families based their teachings in gravitating toward military careers as well as agriculture . The first half of the nineteenth century was a time of expansion and improvement of transportation systems. States in the North and the Midwest chartered and built over reach roads and turnpikes. The Turnpike Era (1790-1820) consisted of Americans relying on roads for internal transportation.Canals, such as the Erie Canal, tied New York City to the Great Lakes. Steamboats and railroads improved the motility of goods and people, for knock rummyg ties that served both sides well during the Civil War. The first federal charter corporation that created the dream of the transcontinental railroad was the Union Pacific Railroad federation and the Central Pacific Company . Both of these comp anies gathered many immigrants, at low pay, to work massive hours to construct the railroad.However, better transportation fostered an upgrade on trade within the country and dispersed new civilization to the west. The industrial revolution created many social problems. Poverty became a growing concern, especially the fact that factory wages were scarcely adequate for family survival . Most residents experienced hunger and destitution. Among the poor, child labor was very common. Most parents forced their children to look for jobs alternatively of going to school for survival. Southerners often cited these factors as crimes whenever the North challenged its institution of slavery.The Industrial Revolution brought Southern landowners an invention that they adopted and embraced The Cotton Gin. Invented by Eli Whitney, the cotton fiber gin made slavery profitable and made cotton the nations number one export . The South also adopted the steam engine, mainly to upkeep the cotton gin a nd to use on steamships to transport cotton. Ironically, the success of the cotton gin, by fostering slavery, helped to know apart the two sides of the country and bring about the Civil War.The stair of immigration also stimulated economic growth while increasing differences between North nd South. Immigrants, mostly from Europe at this time, were supplied with low-cost labor. Most immigrants lived in the North where jobs were constantly available but had no respect to the workers. The use of standard, interchangeable parts, especially the manufacturing of guns, clocks, and sewing machines , allowed the nation to advance technologically by using unskilled workers. During the Civil War, with Southern representatives of Congress gone and the Republican Party controlling the digest of Congress and the presidency, the government set about to aid business and technology.In 1862, the Department of Agriculture was founded. It provided a national center to coordinate agricultural develop ment and promote scientific farming. A house divided against itself cannot stand. I believe this government cannot endure permanently half-slave and half-free. This quotation was from Abraham Lincoln in 1858. Abraham Lincoln did not want the North and South to separate but for the Industry to grow bigger . In the first part of the quotation, A house divided against itself cannot stand, portrays that the united States needs to be joined not divided.A house needs to stand tall and not let anything else break it down. It is true that the government cannot endue permanently half-slave and half-free because this needs to be a united country not a haft this haft that country. Lincoln convinced others that the United States could not be this way. It had to bet glued unitedly again and it had to abolish anything that was not right. However, throughout time, The Divided States of America was soon becoming the United States of America.After Lincolns death, three amendments were ratified th at help America put back to place. The 13th amendment concluded that slavery was officially abolished . The 14th amendment granted all persons born or naturalized in the United States, to be citizens which included former slaves that were freed . The 15th amendment granted African Americans the right to vote . These three amendment helped bit by bit to repair the United States. tied(p) though today there is still a difference in the North and South, our nation will always be together.The United States grew tremendously during the Industrial Revolution. Inventions were made, transportation was spread out, new jobs were increasing and more knowledge was diffusing. Throughout time, our population was growing and our nation got to spread out to the west to expand our land and culture. Even though our presidents may have made mistakes, we get to learn what we have done wrong and use that in our future. Our nation may have been divided for awhile but we can always retain it back. Back wh ere it always was, united.

Has the lottery replaced the government in the funding of education Essay Example for Free

Has the kittytery replaced the government in the funding of education raiseThe overarching aims of education underlie the construction of the curriculum and funding. upbringing, in the broader sense, aims to develop the individual, to enlarge a childs knowledge, experience and imaginative understanding, and thus his aw arness of lesson values and capacity for enjoyment and in like manner to enable the child to take his place in society. The school education on the other hand, has the aim to get out opportunities for all pupils to learn and achieve, to promote spiritual, moral, social and cultural culture and to prepare pupils for the opportunities, responsibilities and experiences of life. Consider the school of the late 20th century. It has not changed a whole lot in the last fifty years or so. Isolated from the rest of the world except for 1 or two school-business partnerships. Working at the edges of the school, these partnerships drive to provide students with some i nsight into the working world or give some marginal discretionary resources for the principal to use. The resources are used on one of a multitude of unrelated programs that the school has set up to cope with the problems that society has dumped on the school.The school itself has created barriers that shelter and isolate it from the work of the world that goes on around it. The technological innovations that are pervasive in the business world have yet to penetrate the classrooms except for a single computer in each classroom that the teacher barely knows how to use. Few business people, even the partners, ever come to school those who do are shocked by the conditions they witness and by the discipline problems with which teachers must contend.Still they are comforted by the fact that school feels pretty much like it did when they went to school. On the other hand, the select of services on a university campus is one thing to measure the quality of manufactured goods is another m atter. Chubb, J. and Moe, T. takes this further and says that a service cannot be objectively measured. much(prenominal) frustration stems from the difference between services and goods. For example, educational services are intangible and cannot be packaged, displayed or inspected fully by prospective students.Services also have a perishability problem because they cannot be stored for future delivery when students cut class, the professors time is wasted. Unlike goods, services are difficult to separate from their provider an donnish course is as fascinating or as boring as the professor. There is also a lot of variability in services. For example, the mood of the professor could impinge on his or her tolerance for chatting in class. Services are difficult to standardize. Unlike manufactured goods, services are not as suggestible to strict quality control.With regards to these needs in education, more states are actually looking for fund in order to pursue educational develo pment. Out of 42 states that uses draftsmanship, 24 of it uses the proceeds for school financing aside from the support of the government. In line with this research, the data that describes the 2005 and 2006 development of schools in each state considered. Basically, this paper attempts to site if the massive lottery practices in each states promotes educational development in terms of funding.The ReportFrom the previous discussion, The Chicago Reporter found out that the lottery does not supplement school funding, even though the proceeds goes directly the states Common School Fund. On the other hand, the South Carolina Education Lottery was approved by constitutional referendum in 2000, and implemented shortly thereafter. In contrast to other education lotteries, the legislation establishing the lottery contains substantive measures to promise that lottery revenues supplement, rather than replace, general fund tax revenues earmarked for education.Aside from this, the involveme nt of lottery in funding the schools needs show a good favor as California Performance Review supported the option. California lottery players, retailers and, most importantly, its public schools, all stand to gain from changing state laws that contain the lotterys ability to increase sales. These changes are not only consistent with the mandated purpose of The Lottery Act as approved by the voters, they represent the only unhazardous way to ensure that lottery dollars to education will not actually decrease.In line with this, this paper will evaluate and compare the genuine development in 46 states in which 24 of it uses the proceeds of lottery to education while the other 22 only uses the support of the government. The Method To determine the current performance of schools in 46 states, the police detective compares the amount of budget between states w/ lottery proceeds used in school funding and states w/o lottery proceeds used in school funding.To determine the difference o f budget between these states and the status of development in each school, the researcher conducted an compendium from the data obtained in these 46 states (The distribution of data is shown in the Appendix A) using t-test procedures. From 24 schools that are currently using lottery proceeds, the analysis of their education budget was also compared to their previous years in which lottery proceeds is not being considered (see Appendix B). The use of its mean and coefficient of variation are performed for evaluation of budget.

Process Management Methods for Construction Performance

Process Management Methods for device PerformanceABSTRACTThe purpose of this query was to study how the facial expression death penalty give notice be reformd by adopting the turn effment approaches, in order to provide better client apprize and more price-efficient ware. The inquiry foc utilise on the manufacturing operation , and referring point, and transfer this cognitive process thinking into the locution. The methods were tested in pilot tests in which the certain cost and value engineering prototype application was utilize.This thesis demonstrates an integration of design and labor readying based on the product model approach. The final progeny is that the main contractor potful utilise information coming from designers as input in its own tendering and cost estimation applications.The key methodology used for describing the information worry process throughout the building process life-cycle was IDEF0. The abbreviation of the current process (as-is), i n the form of an IDEF0 model, helped in identifying the main problems of current practice. The butt end process (to-be) definition was based on product model utilisation and takes into account the possibilities for process reengineering supported by product data technology. One circumstantial requirement was deemed important in view of the anticipated evolutions in the discipline of data exchange the target system should be structured in much(prenominal) a trend that it could easily be adapted to receive data according to the emerging IFC core model schemas.The over wholly result of the seek reported in this thesis is that the product model approach can be used for a substantially reengineered information counselling process of a main contractor, especially in design and construct type contractsCHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTIONRESEARCH BACKGROUNDThe grammatical construction industry is suffering from its fragmented natureEuropean Commission, 1994. The neediness of co-ordination and c ommunication between parties, the informal and unstructured take oning process, adversarial contractual relationships and the deprivation of customer focus be what inhibit the performance of the industry (Latham, 1994 Egan, 1998). Because the construction render is regarded as freakish in terms of deli very(prenominal) time, cost, profitability and fibre, the industry has not been able to combine high quality with productivity, customer satisfaction and tractability (Fairclough, 2002).Howell (1999) pointed out that the inefficiency of the industry has tended to be the way of life. However, Latham (1994) suggests using the manufacturing as a referencing point and transferring the practices and theories from manufacturing industry. And Howell suggests that the learning from manufacturing could be a 2 way process manufacturing could learn from construction in argonas such as project-based management and construction could learn from manufacturings developed and developing solut ions to alter competitiveness.In manufacturers are accustomed to fetching a process view of their operations, and they usually model 2 discrete product activities and holistic high-level process both internal and external activities. launch upon this, Egan (1998) recommends that process modelling could be used as a method to remedy the construction performance. Furthermore, many opposite models derived from manufacturing and process management theories have been recognized and adopted by construction companiesNevertheless, as Ball (1988) summarised, construction industry has distinctive device characteristics divergentiating from other sectors as well as manufacturing. Although solutions have been recommended, their implementation in manufacturing is far advanced in comparison to construction industry. Thus to what extent these process management approaches and models can improve the design and construction process allow for need to be examined. RESEARCH AIMThe aim of the question is to understand construction process management and to prove it as an approach that could help to improve the construction performance. In order to achieve the aim, specific objectives were setPROJECT OBJECTIVESThe research project objectives are outlined belowl To explore the cookery of construction to embrace the process approach to deliver projectl to identify the present state of process management in constructionl To Study the current trends and victimisations of construction process managementMETHODOLOGY AND APPROACHThe starting point of this research is exploring the construction process management approach and come upon out its influence on construction productivity and competitiveness.A cross-section research method is adopted in the collection and analysing of the data and presentation of the findings. To entertain comprehensive understanding of the relationship between manufacturing process and construction process, as well as theories on construction proc ess management, a huge beat of books and documents need to be looked through. Then the implementation of process management in construction is inspected by adoption of the case study qualitative research approach. extend STRUCTUREThe general instruction and structure of the report will be provided in this section. The report is organized to consist of six main chapters. A shortened description of the content of each chapter is outlined belowChapter oneIn this chapter, the research report is introduced. The research background is addressed. The aim and objectives are also presented.Chapter twoChapter two reviews the existing literature. A wide-ranging literature review was carried out to identify the current k right awayledge and keep up on any festering on the field. The literature review covers the understanding of manufacturing process, construction industry situation and problems within it, process management theory, and the implementation of construction process management a pproach.Chapter troikaIn this chapter, an overall outline of various research methods that might employ in this research is presented. The selection and justification of the research methods are described. The chosen methods and research plan are highlighted in this chapter.Chapter FourThis chapter examines the collected data and analyzes the data within cases, as well as a detailed cross-case analysis of cases.Chapter fiverThis chapter is directly linked to the chapter four. An in-depth discussion is held based upon the previous analysis and research.Chapter SixThis chapter provides the conclusion of the report as well as the recommendation. The direction of further research is also proposedSUMMARYCHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEWIntroductionOver the past few years, researchers and sponsors have increasingly turned their attentions to finding ways managing the construction process. After decades of neglect, construction process is high on the agenda. As the construction product has in almost instances been a one-off, much emphasis has been placed on project management. However actually the industry is focused on design and development of a building product and should look to manufacturing reference on how to manage the design and development process. Examining the manufacturing perspective and understanding how it can be applied to design and construction and considering the use of techniques and technologies available to support the process and the issues relating to the implementation on projects is essential for construction industry . However, whether this process approach is needed in the construction field, and to what extent it contributes to the construction industry, this required to be researched and evaluated. Therefore in this project, why in that location should be process management in construction industry, the state-of-the-art, how it is applied and the future of it will be identified.Being continuously criticized for its less than optimal p erformance by several government and institutional reports such as Philips(1950) and Latham(1994), The UK construction industry has been under increasing pressure to improve its practices(Howell, 1999). From the analysis of these reports, conclusion coming up that the fragmented nature of the industry, the lack of co-ordination and communication between parties the informal and unstructured learning process, adversarial contractual relationships and the lack of customer focus are astray and typically existing in the construction industry and are supposed to embarrass the industrys performance. Furthermore, Fairclough(2002) indicates that construction are often seen as unpredictable in terms of delivery time, cost, profitability and quality, and the investment into research and development is usually seen as expensive when compared to other industry. check to Howell, the inefficiency of the industry has tended to be the way of life. This may be due(p) to the fact that none of the reports, apart from Latham (1994) and Egan (1998), has been sufficiently acted upon. So Lutham suggests using manufacturing as a reference point and Egan, in his Rethinking Construction report, recommends process modelling as a method of improvement.There has been a constant subject of discussion on the transfer of the transfer of practices and theories from other sectors as Lutham (1994) suggested in his report. Some construction practitioners are obstinate that their industry is unique and that the transference of principles cannot be adopted whole lifeedly. Due to it, Ball (1998) emphasized round of the arguments most commonly used to differentiate construction from other industriesThe one-of-a-kind product.The spatial fixity of buildings.One-site production.The effect of land price on design and construction possibilities.The requirement for ache life expectancy.The inexperience of clientsThe merchant role of company.The overwhelmingly domestic industry.The masculine stereotyp e of the workforce.The long cycle from design to production.The high cost of the projects.The amplified reaction to stinting crisis.The labour intensive productionThe fragmented nature of the industry.Nevertheless, there are also many practitioners and academics who believe that the construction industry has much to learn from other industries typically manufacturing. Howell (1999) goes so far as to suggest that this learning could be a two way process manufacturing could learn from construction in sports stadium such as project-based management and construction could learn from manufacturings developed and developing solutions, to improve its performance of competitiveness and productivity.As stated by copeGunasekaran (1996) and KorenliusWamelink (1998), manufacturing has been a constant reference point and a source of innovation in construction for many decades. Solutions that have been recommended to help overcome the problems of construction request industrialization, comput er-integrated construction, robotics and automated construction. However their implementation in manufacturing is far advanced in comparison to the construction industry. Koskela (1992) believes that the fundamental theories and principles of manufacturing should be harnessed to deliver the full benefits to construction rather than the technological solutions.In recent years the realization that the construction industry might not be as unique as was traditionally thought has initiated immature research, which In particularly, has resulted in a development of the concept that construction is a manufacturing process. Moreover a research fund under the ripe Manufacturing Initiative (IMI) sector of the Engineering and Physical Science Research Council (EPSRC, 1998) to continue and expound upon current thinking.a new phenomenon currently appears to being steadily work within construction companies at the side of the new technologies taken from manufacturing. It is based upon the deve lopment and use of fundamental core processes to improve efficiency of the industry, with great emphasis upon the basic theories and principles underlying the design and construction process. Egan(1998) draw attention to this factor by reporting that due to the fragmented nature of the construction industry very little work had gone into process modelling. Manufacturers are in the habit of taking a process view of their operations they usually model both discrete product activities and holistic high-level for both internal and external activities. In particular, there has be a growing volume of research nidus upon the consolidation of the just-in-time(JIT) and the total quality management(TQM) theories, with an array of other practices such as productive maintenance, visual management and re-engineering. Investigations by construction practitioners and academics alike have now sought to develop the content and manufacturing, agile production and lean production.Current Researches o n Construction IndustryThe Civil Engineering Research Foundation (CERT) reveal observes that the construction industry is becoming frustrated over the lack of progress in removing or mitigating barriers to improving construction practices and is necessary to support sustainable development goals. the industry has to face Many severeies as it approach this goal facilities are designed by using least-cost technologies that ignore opportunities to improve productivity and enhance environmental quality it seems to be complicated, to achieve agreement on government design and construction policies that advance sustainable development whats more, there are the frustration of knowing better technologies are available but not having the capacity o find and retrieve them and international concentration on construction research and practice is far more inadequate. Also the report identifies specific constraints to innovation that characterize the challenges facing the construction industry w hich represent the areas where work needs to be done. The observers indicate that the design and construction process often discourage the introduction of innovative technologies and systems that have superior characteristics but are not necessarily the least-cost option, which can work to the detriment of owners and the environment unsuitable building codes and disjointed regulatory systems that does not allow for adopting new and better materials and practices are often be applied when buildings and facilities are designed and constructed. There is a lack of understanding by the public and by industry of practices and opportunities to promote sustainable development there is lack of timely and accurate information and a knowledge base on proven design and construction solutions and techniques for assuring quality construction, which results in lost opportunities to improve system efficiencies and productivity through adoption of innovative technologies there are no consistent, acc urate, and comprehensive predictive models available for designing for sustainability making the process difficult to validate, monitor, and evaluate. Therefore, the observers suggest, new tools and methods are required for advancing state-of-the-art technologies, including taking advantage of advances in information systems to increase the construction industrys efficiency and productivity.According to Kraiem Diekmans (1987) theory hinders of project are classified into three groups compensable, excusable and non-excusable. Generally, a delay is considered compensable to the contractor when its cause is within the control, is the fault of or is caused by the negligence of the owner. Excusable delays occur when the contractor is delayed by occurrences that are not attributable to either the contractor or owner. Non-excusable delays are caused by the contractors own action and/or inaction. These can be caused by the fault of the contractor, or his subcontractors, material, workforc e or suppliers. The delay damages from the contractor is regarded could be retrieved by the owner conceivably. Lieshmann (1991) presented the consequences of delays in construction, especially from the legal point of view. Herbsman et al. (1995) catalogued the influence of delays on time, cost and quality. Baldwin Manthei (1971) studied the causes of delay in building projects in the USA. The major causes of delay were the result of weather, labour supply and subcontractors. These authors found that adequate planning at the very early stages of the project is important for minimizing delay and cost overruns in most projects in developing countries. This study dealt with developing countries where workers are relatively skilled. The authors realised that some of these problems relate to the special characteristics of this part of the world, such as productivity, whereas others are inbred in the nature of construction projects, such as planning and control problems. Yates (1993) dev eloped a decision support system for construction delay analysis called the delay analysis system (DAS). The main categories of delays in the DAS system include engineering, equipment, external delays, labour, management, materials, owner, subcontractor and weather. Assaf et al. (1995) studied the causes of delay in large building construction projects in Saudi Arabia. Some of the most important causes of delay included approval of shop drawings, delays in contractors payment by owners, design changes by owners, interchange problems during construction, the relationships between different subcontractors schedules in the execution of the project, the slowness of the owners decision-making process, design errors, excessive bureaucracy in project-owner organization, labour shortages and inadequate labour skills. From analysing the factors causing the delay of project, there should be elicitation on whether it can be diminished by application of process management.Atkin, BorgbrantJosep hson (2003) argues that ideas of what should be considered in the design stage of a new building often seems to be a headache for architects, engineers and clients. These ideas invariably lead to some compromise between the demands of hard engineering and softer issues, with the potential likewise to compromise on the physical characteristics and performance of the building leading to some measure of failure. Examples of failure include high energy costs, health problems and structural destruction because of moisture, for which the resident physician must pay directly or indirectly. Long-term socio-economic consequences can occur from this as well. Current problems are failures resulting from neglect of building physics principles are examined and their causes are highlighted. Research is continuing into the development of tools to help reduce the risk of failure and to highlight the costs and risks attached to the insufficient attention to building physics principles.Theories on M anufacturing Process and Process ManagementAccording to Melans(1992) research, a well- managed manufacturing process has the following characteristics1. Clearly defined ownership. Traditionally, ownership of a manufacturing operation is mainly clear and graphic it resides with a manager. The manager responsible for the operation is readily identifiable. The organization objectives, its output, and what the manager is accountable for must be fully understood. Standards such as cost, schedule, and quality are established for judging the managers performance. However, in recent years, authorized work teams and self-directed work groups where employees are assuming some of the tradition roles of management have gradually take the place of the traditional management ownership. A process owner, whether an individual or a team, is fully responsible for yield, cost, quality, and schedule, and must management the process to the targets set on these standards. Further, an owner has the auth ority to change or oversee a change in the process within his or her area of jurisdiction.2. Defined boundaries. Manufacturing processes have a clearly defined beginning and end. He final output, or deliverable, as well as the input required to render it are clear and unambiguous. What is sometimes not clear, however, is whether output specifications truly reflect customer requirements and whether input specifications represent what is needed in the ensuring geological faults. The lack of understanding of requirements on either the input side or output side underlies many business processes. In a well-managed manufacturing process, requirements problems are minimized through conscious exploit aimed at specifying the work product as it proceeds from one operation to another.3. Documented flow of work. Work flow in a manufacturing process is generally documented in great detail. There are several reasons for this. Documentation provides a permanent record of the manner in which a p hysical transformation takes place for production purposes. This record also provides a reference point or baseline from which any changes are to be made and serves as a means for replicating the process. Finally, corroboration also serves as both a training and reference aid for the personnel involved in the process.4. Established control points. make points serve as a means for regulating the quality of work. Because of the natural variation that occurs in physical process, control points are established to manage variation. These points involve such activities as critique, verification of required characteristics, and the disposition of discrepant material.5. Established measurements. Measurements provide a statistical basis for controlling the flow of work and managing variation. statistical techniques such as the control chart serve as useful tools for managing variation in many operations of a repetitive nature.6. Control of process deviations. In managed processed, correct ive action is performed in a timely manner and from a statistical basis when an undesirable variation occurs. Feedback and regulation are the heart of process control and, without control, the process loses its capacity of providing consistent output quality.Andersons (1994) theory clearly introduces the manufacturing process. He states that the most obvious characteristics of a production readiness are the volume of items produced and the variety of different products made using the same resources. The volume and variety characteristics provide one way to look at the process of manufacture. Usually an increasing volume of production, in term of the come in of individual units of each product, will go hand in hand with decreasing variety, in terms of the number of different products. And the author classifies the manufacturing process into three types Mass Production involves producing a small number of different products in a great quantity, which provides the stereotype of manuf acturing industry long assembly lines where men or machines endlessly turn on the same product month after month. One characteristic of a mass production process is that operations are linked together in a line when one operation is finished on a product it moves directly to the next operation Batch Production is used when there are a greater variety of products being produced, with correspondingly smaller volumes. In this situation it is usual to have machinery and equipment which can be used to carry out operations on a number of different products. A single machine will carry out an operation on a whole batch of items of one kind and then be set up to carry out a similar operation on a whole batch of items of another kind One-off production is used when individual customers each require an individual product, which is different from any product the company has made in the recent past. This implies low volumes but the greatest accomplishable variety. With very large and complicat ed items the manufacturing process may be project based. This indicates that the manufacturing processes sufficiently complex, and over a long enough time-scale, that the major difficulties are associated with planning how various different operations and activities will fit together.Born (1994) has provided a systematic method for integrating process management with quality management. It is based on a notion called the Quality Process Language (QPL), which is capable of representing and analysing all process within an organization. It also provides a basis for quality management approaches, such as ownership of processes, improved communication and compliance with requirements and regulations. QPL has been used in many types of organisation, large and small, highly structured and loosely structured. It provides a foundation for matter-of-fact approaches such as facilitated workshops, process mapping and improvement, and documentation of procedures. The author also point out that activities and roles inputs and results of any organization can be well be if the nation of QPL is mastered and then this notion can be converted into ordinary text and flow charts, for use in procedure and other documentation about the organization. The use of QPL as author states provides a common language for process and quality specialists to communicate directly. This offers an opportunity to discuss and design organizational and process changes without ignoring the effect on quality. QPL is a diagrammatic language, and it makes it easier for non-quality specialists to understand how processes affect quality and vice versa.Process Management in ConstructionReport (Kagioglou, Cooper, AouadSexton, 2000) introduces the findings and recommendation on the process management relate to the state of the construction industry at the present time and recommend some solutions as t in appraise of how some of the problems might be overcome by transferring established practices from the ma nufacturing industry. However, the authors deem that it must be very careful when transferring knowledge and practices from manufacturing into the construction industry due to a number of reasons. First, the differences between the level of maturity of both processes and practices are distinct, with manufacturing having the lead. Second, because construction depends heavily on Temporary Multi-organizations (TMOs) while long-term partnership arrangements commonly play the operation role in the manufacturing industry, the structure of the industries and of the organization of project personnel is dissimilar. Finally, comparison between the processes and the practices of both industries must be made by considering the levels in which they exist, such as strategic, managerial and operational. Therefore, clarification of process levels can have an important influence on the management of those processes.Kagioglou (1998) argues that there are two chief perspectives of manufacturing that construction can benefit from the project process or New Product Development (NPD) and the operational and production processes. The first relates very closely, both in terms of nature and content, to the design and construction process. For itself, the development that of a solution from a demand identified in the market place or internally within an organization to the implementation is considered. This is achieved by organizing the activities that need to take place in a number of phases, which are made distinct by the determination of review points between the phases. This is very similar to the enactment of a construction project, the difference being that the distinction between the phases is usually determined by the entry of the different parties or functions, for example, architects, contractors, to the process. The second area is related to the way in which the production of a product, including material flow, process design and resources planning, is undertaken. Indeed, a number of very effective philosophies and practices such as Just in Time (JIT), lean production and others have a legacy of optimized production in the manufacturing sector. JIT aims to improve production by utilizing the internal and external supply chains in terms of people and material flow. The first two benefits can be recognise in the construction industry perhaps more readily than the third one, which requires a significant reorganization and mind-shift of the litigation-driven industry. This investigation concentrates on what can be heedless from the NPD project process of manufacturing, and reference to it is made throughout the description of the Generic Design and Construction Process Protocol (GDCPP).Koskela (1992) expresses in his report that currently some construction subproducts are produced in processes that possess a manufacturing character. The assembly of such components with the building frame usually represents a minor share of the total costs. Windows, door s, elevators, prefabricated cover components, and prefabricated houses, are examples of this kind of manufactured product. In regard to quality management, clear progress has been made in many countries. Many supplying firms have acquired quality certification according to the ISO standard. The application of the new production philosophy is least problematic in this part of the construction industry the methods and techniques developed in manufacturing can be applied directly. However, except for quality management techniques, only a minor fraction of the factories and plants delivering to construction sites have begun to implement the new philosophy. It may be anticipated that this transformation will proceed rapidly after having gained initial momentum. Thus, industrialized construction might gain competitive benefits sooner than site construction.Additionally, Koskela (1992) summarized the develop of Implementation of process improvement by engineering and construction organiz ations. The inherent recommendation of the new philosophy to construction practitioners is clear that the share of non value-adding activities in all processes has to be systematically and persistently decreased. Increasing the efficiency of value-adding activities has to be continued in parallel. Construction should adopt the new production philosophy. In manufacturing, the new production philosophy improves competitiveness by identifying and eliminating waste (non value-adding) activities. Traditionally, construction is viewed and modelled only as a series of conversion (value-adding) activities. For example, waste activities such as waiting, storing inventory, moving material, and inspection are not generally modelled by Critical Path Models (CPM) or other control tools. Construction has traditionally tried to improve competitiveness by making conversions incrementally more efficient. But judging from the manufacturing experience, construction could realize dramatic improvements simply by identifying and eliminating non conversion (non value-adding) activities. In other words, actual construction should be viewed as flow processes (consisting of both waste and conversion activities), not just conversion processes. As demonstrated previously by the manufacturing industrys experience, adoption of the new production philosophy will be a fundamental paradigm shift for the construction industry. The implications of this for design are that the process of construction must be developed in conjunction with the design itself. An initial set of design and improvement principles for flow processes are presented that can serve as an implementation guideline. Major development efforts in construction, like industrialization, computer integrated construction and construction automation has to be redefined to acknowledge the need to balance flow improvement and conversion improvement. The conceptual foundation of construction management and engineering, being based on th e concept of conversion only, is obsolete. Formalization of the scientific foundations of construction management and engineering should be a primary long term task fo

Structure and Uses of Ibuprofen

Structure and Uses of ibuprofenAbstractThe Controlled- retail store dosage digits argon formulated to bring out the doses spry ingredient gradually and predictably every perpetrate an extended period of time that is something wish 12 to 24 hour period. These formulations potentially provide for greater dominance in the treatment of chronic conditions done more consistent bringing of the medication reduced side executions greater convenience and laster levels of uncomplaining compliance due to a simplified dosage schedule, comp ard with those of immediate-release drugs. isobutylphenyl propionic point is a colourless, crystalline solid which is having a low soluble limits in water except it is having a better solublity in most organic solvents. The main aim of this score is control the release of drug by encapsulating it in to coating fabrics like fatty acrimoniouss (palmiticacid and pluronic F-127). Encapsulating of ibuprofen by using freeze prohibitionisting techni que in this technique isobutylphenyl propionic acid is encapsulated in to the fattyacid and pluronic (F127), these coating veridicals lead the property of controlling the release of drug when the coated drug is entered in to the body the coating somatics which surrounded to the drug is control the release of drug. The release of encapsulated ibuprofen is determined by fall down through dis declaration and UV- visible spectroscopy.INTRODUCTION1. IBUPROFENIbuprofen is a colourless, crystalline solid which is having a very very low solubility limits I case of water but it is having comparabelly better soluble limits in case of organic solvents. The synthesis of ibuprofen was originally reported in 1964 from -isobutyl- lacetophen but the drug was not marketed in the joined States until 1974 despite the fact that it had been in stock(predicate) for several years in Europe. It was the indomethacin and was immediately accepted in therapy. Its success was a factor in the introduction of many new agents in the 1970s. Ibuprofen was the first aryl propionic acid derivative to be marketed in the United States. This chemical trend currently comprises of the largest group of NSAIDs under investigation with as many as 25 derivatives in various stages of development. It recently became the first prescription NSAIA to become available as an all over the counter analgesic in almost 30 years and is avialble under a number of trade call ins, It is also sometimes cognize as Advil, Anadin Ibuprofen, Arthrofen, Brufen, Retard, Cuprofen, Fenbid Galprofen, Hedex Ibuprofen, Ibufem Librofem Mandafen Manorfen Migrafen Motrin Nurofen Obifen Relcofen perhaps being among the more widely used. The continuing popularity of ibuprofen is evidenced by the appearance 200 prescription drugs in the United States.IUPAC name 2-4-(2-methylpropyl) phenyl propanoacid,Formula C13H18O2,molecular(a) mass 206.28,Melting point 76 C (1. 69 F)Bioavailability 49-73,Protein binding 99%,Metabolis m Hepatic,Half life 1.8-2 hours, voidance Renal.1.1 Structure of IbuprofenStructure of IBUPROFENIbuprofen is a white powder belonging to the propionic acid derivatives, with a melting point of 74 77 C. It is only s openly soluble in water but readily soluble in organic solvents such(prenominal) as ethanol. It is a chiral compound racemic Ibuprofen is usually used, although only one form is active medicinally.Ibuprofen is made up of covalently-bonded carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms. 2 CH3 motes are single-bonded to a CH molecule The CH molecule is bonded to a carbon atom that forms a 6-sided palisade of carbon atoms. An opposite CH molecule is single-bonded to a carbon atom on the other side of the ring. Inside the ring there are 3 double bonds between carbon atoms. Then another CH3 molecule and a COOH molecule are both single bonded to the CH molecule on the right. Because it is nonsteroidal, it is widely used as it does not upset the hormonalbalance in the body. Its anti-i nflammatory, analgesic ( cark relieving) and antipyretic (fever reducing) actions are co moderate pain such as headache, toothache, and migraine as well as symptoms of fever.1.2 StereochemistryIbuprofen contains a chiral carbon in the position of the propionate moiety. As such, there are twain possible enantiomers of ibuprofen, with the potential for different biological effects and metabolism for each enantiomer. Indeed it was found that (S)(+)- ibuprofen (dexibuprofen) was the active form both in vitro and in vivo, because of this reason the ibuprofen is marketed as a single enantiomer as occurs with naproxen and other NSAIDs.And the in vivo experiments revealed the existence of an Isomerase (2-arylpropionylco-A epimerase) which converted (R) -ibuprofen to the active (S)-enantiomer .Most of the ibuprofen formulations are marketed as racemic mixtures. Racemic ibuprofen is an important NSAID used in the treatment of pain and inflammation in a variety of musculoskeletal rheumatic d isorders.1.3 tax deductionThere have been many commercial and laboratory publications for the synthesis of Ibuprofen. Two of the most popular ways to obtain Ibuprofen are the Boot unconscious process and the Hoechst process. The Boot process is an older commercial process developed by the Boot Pure Drug Company, and the Hoechst process is a newer process developed by the Hoechst Company. Most of these routes to Ibuprofen begin with isobutyl benzene and use Friedel-Crafts acylation. The Boot process requires six move, while the Hoechst process, with the assistance of catalysts, is completed in only three steps.Cheminor Drugs have developed a process for an improved version of ibuprofen based on chiral synthesis. The move is signifi hobot given that pure S-Ibuprofen (the active form of ibuprofen) could near halve the regular ibuprofen dosage, besides improving the side-effect profile.However the human body can convert the inactive (R) form into the (S) form, so in conclusion 100% of the ibuprofen taken becomes active. The process discovered by Cheminor is therefore unlikely to have commercial significance. 61.4 Mechanism of actionIbuprofen is an NSAID which is believed to work through inhibition of cyclooxygenase (COX), thus inhibiting prostaglandin synthesis. There are at least 2 variants of cyclooxygenase (cyclooxygenase-1 and COX-2). Ibuprofen inhibits both COX-1 and COX-2. It appears that its analgesic, antipyretic, and anti-inflammatory action utensil is achieved principally through COX-2 inhibition whereas COX-1 inhibition is responsible for its unwanted effects on platelet aggregation and the GI mucosa. The business office of the individual COX isoforms in the analgesic, anti-inflammatory, and gastric damage effects of NSAIDs is enigmatical and different compounds cause different degrees of analgesia and gastric damage.1.5 Absorption and metabolismIbuprofen is quite an rapidly absorbed when it is admistered orally we can witness the peak plasma l evels are obtained withan 2hours time. As with most of these acidic NSAIDs , ibuprofen(pka=4.43) is extensively bound to the plasma proteins(99%) and leave alone interact with other acidic drugs which are protein bound. Metabolism occur rapidly and the drug is nearly completely excreted in the urine as UN changed drug and oxidative metabolites with in 24 hrs following administration. Metabolism involves primarily -1and -2 oxidisation of the -iso butyl side chain, followed by alcohol oxidation of the primary alcohol resulting from the -oxidation to the corresponding carboxylic acid. All metabolites are essentially in active. When Ibuprofen id administered as the individual enantiomers, the major metabolites isolated are the (+)-isomers regardless of the configuration of the administered enantiomer.intrestingley, the (R)(-)-enantiomer is inverted to the (S)-(+)-enantiomer in vivo, report for the observance that the two enantiomers are bioequivalent In vivo.1.6 Ibuprofen usesIbupr ofen is used to relief the symptoms of a wide range of illnesses such as headaches, backache, period pain, dental pain, neuralgia, rheumatic pain, muscular pain, migraine, cold and flu symptoms and arthritis.Recently evidence has emerged suggesting that ibuprofen is effective in the treatment of Alzheimers disease.1.7 Ibuprofen side effectsIbuprofen is regarded as the first choice drug in its class due to the low number of side effects and complications associated with it.The most frequent type of adverse result occurring with ibuprofen is gastrointestinal. In clinical trials, the percentage of patients reporting one or more gastrointestinal complaints ranged from 4% to 16%.Common Side Effects suffer upset or irritationInfrequent Side Effects nausea and/or vomiting, constipation, diarrhoeaRare Side Effects skin irritations, drowsiness, gastrointestinal expelIbuprofen has the lowest incidence of gastrointestinal adverse effects, reactions of all the non selective NSAIDS. However this only holds true in case of lower doses of ibuprofen, so over the counter preparation of ibuprofen are generally labelled to advise a maximum daily dose of 1,200 mg.1.8 Risks involved1.8.1 Cardiovascular Risk on with several other NSAIDs, ibuprofen has been implicated in elevating the risk of myocardial infarction, particularly among those chronically using high doses.1.8.2 Risks in PregnancyIbuprofen utilization should be avoided in late pregnancy due to risk of premature closure of the ducts arteries in the fetal heart.1.8.3 Risks in Inflammatory Bowel DiseaseIbuprofen should not be used regularly in individuals with Inflammatory Bowel Diseas (IBD-Crohns Disease and Ulcerative Colitis)due to its ability to cause gastric bleeding and form ulcer in the gastric lining. Drugs such as Advil should be avoided in persons afflicted with IBD. Pain relievers such as Tylenol (containing acetaminophen) or drugs containing Codeine (which slows down bowel activity) are safer methods than Ibuprofen for pain relief in IBD. Ibuprofen is also known to cause worsening of IBD during times of a flare-up, thus should be avoided completely.1.8.4Drug-Drug InteractionsIbuprofen is associated with several suspected or other probable interactions that can affect the action of other drugs .Ibuprofen postulates to the increased levels of lithium leading to the reduction of lithium elimination from the kidneys, and this may lead to lithium toxicity. Ibuprofen may lead to the lowering of agate line push because prostaglandins play an important role in reducing the blood pressure. Ibuprofen is used in combination with amino glycosides fore.g. The blood levels of gentamycin may increase presumably because the elimination of amino glycosides from the body is reduced and may lead to amino glycoside side effect.1.9. Absorption and MetabolismIbuprofen is rapidly absorbed on oral administration with peak plasma levels being generally achieve with in 2hrs. As with most of these acidic NSAIDs , ibuprofen(pka=4.43) is extensively bound to the plasma proteins(99%) and will interact with other acidic drugs which are protein bound. Metabolism involves primarily -1and -2 oxidation of the -iso butyl side chain, followed by alcohol oxidation of the primary alcohol resulting from the -oxidation to the corresponding carboxylic acid. All the metabolites are essentially inactive. The (R)(-)-enantiomer is inverted to the (S)-(+)-enantiomer in vivo, accounting for the observation that the two enantiomers are bioequivalent In vivo.1.9 Mechanism of ActionIbuprofen is an NSAID which is believed to work through inhibition of cyclooxygenase (COX), thus inhibiting prostaglandin synthesis. Prostaglandins are produced in response to injury or certain diseases 2 variants of cyclooxygenase (COX-1 and COX-2). Ibuprofen inhibits both COX-1 and COX-2. It appears that its analgesic, antipyretic, and anti-inflammatory activity is achieved principally through COX-2 inhibition whereas COX-1 in hibition is responsible for its unwanted effects on platelet aggregation and the GI mucosa. The role of the individual COX Isoforms in the Analgesic, Antiinflammatory, and the Gastric damage and affects of NSAIDs is uncertain and different degrees of Analgesia and Gastric damage occur.1.10 Controlled Release MechanismsControlled release implies regulation of the voice communication of a a drug by a device the control is aimed at delivering the drug at a specific rate for a definite period of time independent of the local environments. Controlled release may also turn back methods of promote localization of drug at an active site. Site specific and targeted delivery systems are the descriptive term used to denote this type of control. The periods of delivery are much long-life than in case of sustained release and may vary from days to years. Controlled release mechanism is shapeed to release the drug in vivo according to predictable rates that can be verified by in-vitro measure ments.Controlled release technology implies a quantities understanding of the physic chemical mechanism of drug availability to the extent that the dosage form release rate can be specified. Potential development s and new approaches to oral controlled release drug delivery systems, intragastric floating tablets, Trans mucosal tablets and micro poriferous membrane coated tablets . An example of application to the controlled release technology to dosage form design consists of a polymer matrix in which a drug containing solution is dispersed in the form of micro cells. The barrier permeability and the drug solubility in the dispersed solution are variables that can be adjusted to provide predictable drug release rates. All pharmaceutical dosage forms should be controlled release formulations -with rate specified and bioavailability assured by the drug delivery design.There are three types of controlled release mechanisms Diffusion Swelling Degradation2 .Palmitic acidPalmitic acid,CH3 (CH2)14COOH or hexadecanoic acid in IUPAC nomenclature, is one of the most common saturated fatty acids found in animals and plants. As its name indicates, it is a major region of the oil from palm trees (palm oil and palm kernel oil). Palmitate is a term for the salts or esters of palmitic acid. The palmitate anion is the observed form of palmitic acid at physiological pH.CAS number57-10-3 Molecular formulaC16H32O2Molar mass256.42 g/molAppearanceWhite crystalsDensity0.853 g/cm3 at 62 CMelting point63-64 CBoiling point351-352 C2 215 C at 15 mmHgSolubility in waterInsoluble2.1 BiochemistryPalmitic acid is the first fatty acid produced during lipogenesis (fatty acid synthesis) and from which longer fatty acids can be produced. Palmitate negatively feeds back on acetyl- CoA carboxyl(ACC) which is responsible for converting acetyl-CoA to malonyl-CoA which is used to add to the growing acyl chain, thus preventing further palmitate generation. Reduction of palmitic acid devotes cetyl al cohol.2.2 UsesDerivatives of palmitic acid were used in combination with naphtha during World War II to produce napalm (aluminum naphthenate and aluminum palmitate). 6The World Health Organization claims there is persuade evidence that dietary intake of palmitic acid increases risk of developing cardiovascular diseases. However, possibly less-disinterested studies have shown no ill effect, or even a approbatory effect, of dietary consumption of palmitic acid on blood lipids and cardiovascular disease, so that the WHO finding may be deemed controversial.8 However, another correction showed that palmitic acid has no hypercholesterolaemic effect if intake of linoleic acid is greater than 4.5% of energy.On the other hand, it was shown that, if the diet contains trans fatty acids, the health effects are negative, causing an LDL cholesterol increase and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol decrease. Recently, a long-acting anti-psychotic medication, paliperidone palmitate (marketed as INVEGA Sustenna), used in the treatment of schizophrenia, has been synthesized using the oily palmitate ester as a long-acting release immune carrier medium when injected intramuscularly.The underlying method of drug delivery is similar to that used with decanoic acid to deliver long-acting depot medication, in particular, neuroleptics such as haloperidol decanoate.3 .Pluronic F-127Pluronic F127 is a difunctional block copolymer surfactant terminating in primary hydroxyl groups. A non-ionic surfactant that is 100% active and relatively nontoxic.3.1 SpecificationsCloud point (10% sedimentary).. 100CColor, APHA 120 max.Water, weight %. Cast Solid-0.4 max.Prill/Micropastille-0.75 max.pH (2.5% aqueous) 6.0 7.03.2 Typical physical propertiesForm.. Cast solid /Prill /MicropastilleAverage molecular weight. 12600Specific gravity, 77/25C.. 1.05Viscosity, cps at 77C .. 3100Melt Point. 56CCloud point (1% aqueous). 100C Foam height (Ross Miles, 0.1%aqueous at 50C).. 40 mmSurface tension (0. 1% aqueous).. 41 dynes/cm at25CHLB 18 23Solubility in water at 25C. 10%Wetting, Draves Sink Time(3-gm hook, 0.1% aqueous at 25C).. 360 secondsPluronicf-127 is polymer with an additional property in aqueous solution which will covert from its liquid state to that of a non fluid hydrogel, which is a main characteristic of the protein drug delivery system.Pluronic-f127 is also considered as an Thermo Reversible Gelatine of the co-polymer f127 whose generic name is 407 in water makes it an unique candidate for Microencapsulaton application Pluronic-f127 is a surfactant molecule with highly beneficial characteristics that makes it a strong candidate for protein drug delivery system. Its interaction with the polypeptides is most likely of minimisation of potential energy by mutual exclusion of hydrophobic residues from the aqueous medium as was predicted by estimator probing and verified by fluorescent probing.4. MicroencapsulationThis is a process by which very tiny droplets or partic les of liquid or solid material are surrounded or coated with a continuous film of polymeric material. These micro-capsules have a number of benefits such as converting liquids to solids, separating reactive compounds, providing environmental protection, improved material handling properties. Active materials are then encapsulated in micron-sized capsules of barrier polymers (gelatin, plastic, wax, ).The reasons for micro encapsulation are countless. In some cases, the core must be isolated from its surroundings, as in isolating vitamins from the deteriorating effects of oxygen, retarding evaporation of a volatile core, improving the handling properties of a sticky material, or isolating a reactive core from chemical attack. In other cases, the objective is not to isolate the core completely but to control the rate at which it leaves the microcapsule, as in the controlled release of drugs or pesticides. The problem may be as simple as masking the taste or odour of the core, or as co mplex as increasing the selectivity of an adsorption or extraction.4.1 Micro encapsulation techniques*Physical methods of encapsulation Rotary disk atomization Fluid bed coating Stationary hooter co extrusion Centrifugal head co extrusion Submerged nozzle co extrusion Spray drying Pan coating* Chemical methods of encapsulation figure separation Solvent evaporation Solvent extraction Interfacial polymerization Simple and complex coacervation In-situ polymerization Liposome technology* Shell materials used for en capsulation Proteins Polysaccharides Starches waxes Fats Natural and synthetic polymers Resins4.2 Chemicals used in this experimentDrug IBUPROFENCoating polymer pvp and pluronic (f77)Phosphate buffer (7.4)Composition of phosphate buffer Potassium chloride sodium chloride Potassium di hydro ortho phosphate Sodium di hydro ortho phosphate6. Freeze DryingFreeze-drying (also known as lyophilisation or cry desiccation) is a dehydration process typically used to preserve a perish able material or make the material more convenient for transport. Freeze-drying works by freezing the material and then reducing the surrounding pressure and adding enough heat to allow the frozen water in the material to sublime directly from the solid point to gas.There are several stages involved in the freeze drying process6.1 Freezing stage The freezing process consists of freezing the material. In a lab, this is a lot done by placing the material in a freeze-drying flask and rotating the flask in a bath, called a shell freezer, which is cooled by mechanical refrigeration, dry ice and methanol, or liquid nitrogen. On a larger-scale, freezing is usually done using a freeze-drying machine. In this step, it is important to cool the material below its eutectic point, the lowest temperature at which the solid and liquid phases of the material can coexist. This ensures that sublimation rather than melting will occur in the following steps. Larger crystals are easier to freeze-dry. To produce larger crystals, the product should be frozen slowly or can be cycled up and down in temperature. This cycling process is called annealing. However, in the case of food, or objects with formerly-living cells, large ice crystals will break the cell walls (discovered byClarence Birdseye). Usually, the freezing temperatures are between -50 C and -80 C. The freezing phase is the most circumstantial in the whole freeze-drying process, because the product can be spoiled if badly done. Amorphous (glassy) materials do not have an eutectic point, but do have a critical point, below which the product must be maintained to prevent melt-back or collapse during primary and alternate drying.6.2 Primary drying Primary drying can reduce the moisture content of a freeze dried solid to around 0.5%. Further reduction can be effected by secondary drying. During the primary drying, the latent heat of sublimation must be provided and the vapour removed. enough heat is supplied to the materia l for the water to sublimate In this initial drying phase, about 95% of the water in the material is sublimated. This phase may be slow (can be several days in the industry), because, if too much heat is added, the materials building could be altered.6.3 Secondary dryingThe removal of residual moisture at the end o primary drying is performed by raising the temperature of the solid to as high as 50C or 60C. A high temperature is permissible for many materials because the small amount of moisture remaining is not enough to cause spoilage6.4 Freeze drying advantagesDrying takes place at very low temperatures, so that enzyme action is inhibited and chemical decomposition, particularly hydrolysis, is minimised.The solution is frozen such that the final dry product is a net work of solid occupying the same volume as the original solution. Thus the product is glint and porous.The porous form of the product gives ready solubility.There is no denseness of the solution prior to drying. H ence, salts do not concentrate and denature proteins, as occurs with other drying methods.As the process takes place under high vacuum there is little contact with air, and oxidation is minimized.6.5 Freeze drying disadvantagesThe porosity, ready solubility and complete dryness yield a very hygroscopic product. Unless products are dried in their final container and sealed in situ, packaging requires special conditions.The process is very slow and uses intricate plant, which is very expensive. It is not a general method of drying, therefore, but is limited to certain types of valuable products which, because of their heat sensitivity, cannot be dried by any other means.7 Apparatus used for the experiment 7.1 Uv_visible spectroscopy A diagram of the fragments of a typical spectrometer is shown in the following diagram. The functioning of this instrument is relatively straightforward. A calamus of light from a visible and/or UV light source (colored red) is separated into its compon ent wave aloofnesss by a prism or diffraction grating. Each monochromatic (single wavelength) beam in turn is split into two equal intensity beams by a half-mirrored device. One beam, the sample beam (colored magenta), passes through a small transparent container (cuvette) containing a solution of the compound being studied in a transparent solvent. The other beam, the reference (colored blue), passes through an identical cuvette containing only the solvent. The intensities of these light beams are then measured by electronic detectors and compared. The intensity of the reference beam, which should have suffered little or no light absorption, is defined as I0. The intensity ofthe sample beam is defined as I. Over a short period of time, the spectrometer automatically scans all the component wavelengths in the manner described. The ultraviolet (UV) region scanned is normally from 200 to 400 nm, and the visible portion is from 400 to 800 nm. 11Components of UV_ visible spectroscopy7. 2 InstrumentationSource of lightThe best source of light that which is more changeless more intense and which gives range of spectrum from 180-360nm.The different sources available areHydrogen discharge lampIt is more stable robust and widely used.It gives beam from 120-350nm.The lamp consist of hydrogen under pressure.Deuterium lamp It is similar to hydrogen discharge lamp, but filled with deuterium in the place of hydrogen.It offers 3-5 times more intensity than other types.This is most widely used but expensive.Xenon discharge lamp In this lamp, xenon at 10-30 atmospheric pressure is filled in and has two tungsten electrodes. The intensity is greater than hydrogen discharge lamp.Mercury arc This contains mercury vapour and offers bands which are sharp.The spectrum is not continuous.Monochromaters testy monochromaters are used, filters and prism monochromaters are not used because of low resolution.On the other hand gratings provide a band pass of 0.4 to 2nm.Hence they are more widely used incase of expensive spectrophotometers.The mirrors ,gratings are made up of quartz since glass absorbs uv radiation from 200-300nm.Mirrors are front surfaced to prevent absorption of radiation.Sample CellsThe design of sample cells used is similar to that used in colorimetry expect that it is made up of quartz. Quartz cells only must be used in uv spectroscopy since glass cells will absorb uv radiation.The pathlength of the cells are 10mm or 1cm.Solventssolvent plays an important role in uv spectra, since compound peak could be obscured by solvent peak.Hence the solvent for a sample is selected in such a way that solvent neither absorbs in the region of measurement nor affects the absorption of the sample.DetectorsAlthough any one of the detectors used in colorimetry can be used, photomultiplier tubes are mainly used, since the cost of such UV spectrophotometers are high and more accurate measurements are to be made.Single beam and double beam UV spectrophotometers are u sed.7.3.Beers law (related to engrossment of absorbing species)Beers law states that the intensity of beam of monochromatic light decreases exponentially with increase in the concentration of absorbing species arithmetically.Lamberts law (related to thickness/ path length of absorbing species)Lamberts law states that the rate of decrease of intensity (monochromatic light) with the thickness of the medium is directly proportional to the intensity of incident light.Beer-Lambert LawThe beer lamberts law states that absorbance of a solution is directly proportionally to the concentration of the solution.A = log_10(I/I_0) = epsiloncdot ccdot L,The beer-lambert law is useful for characterizing of the compounds but does not hold as a universal relationship for the concentration and absorption of all species.ApplicationsIt is mainly used in the detection of impurities.It is used in the structure elucidation of organic compounds.And also used in the analytic thinking of organic compounds.D etrmination of molecular weight.Determination of dissociation unalterable of acids and bases.7.4 Flow through dissolving apparatusThe prevail-through cell is a suitable method for dissolution studies of severely soluble drugs. The dissolution can be influenced by changing parameters in the apparatus and by changing the physical properties of the drug and the medium used. In this study the dissolution of ibuprofen was examined. Results showed that a smaller particle size gave a higher dissolution rate. With a dose of 50mg a higher percent change state was obtained compared to a dose of 100mg. However, a larger mass (mg) was dissolved when the dose of 100mg was used. When using a cell diameter of 12mm instead of a cell diameter of 22.6mm the dissolution rate increased. A larger dissolution rate was also obtained when the flow of the medium was increased. Finally the effect of changing medium was examined. Results showed that by including a surfactant to the medium a drastic increa se of the dissolution rate was obtained.The flow-through cell has since the 90s been used as an alternative method for dissolution studies . It has some advantages over previous dissolution methods. It is easier to retain sink condition, i.e. to keep a sufficiently low concentration in the remaining solution. This makes it possible to keep a constant diving force (=concentration difference) the whole time during the release experiment. The concentration should not exceed one third of the saturated. The medium can be changed automatically during the study which is very useful in in vitro in vivo studies . Previous studies have showed the importance of deaeration of the dissolution medium, how the packing of the cell can influence the dissolution and that the results obtained with the flow-through cell are more reproducible than obtained with previous methods as dissolution bathsIn this study the dissolution of ibuprofen was examined in the flow-through cell. Six parameters were of interestThe packing of the cellThe particle size of the drugThe doseThe volume flow of the medium through the cellThe cell diameterThe mediumDesirable results were keen reproducibility, i.e. small standard deviation between tests and cells, and to maintain sink condition during the experiment.Advantages Laminar flow characteristics over a wide range of solvent flow ratesInfinite sink ideal for low solubility drugsDifferential rather than cumulative time profile o

Men and Nursing :: Nursing Essays

Nursing is a barter that I have always been fascinated with. Nursing is defined as health promotion, health maintenance, health restoration and providing care to the sick and dying (Kozier and Erb). There are five values essential to nursing, which include altruism, autonomy, human dignity, equity and social justice (AACN). Nursing is a profession in which the take in uses caring as a central concept. Some other characteristics of the nursing profession include art, science, advocacy, and offering holistic care. Nurses use critical thinking in order to problem solve because every patient is unique. The nursing process when assessing a patient includes, data collection, analysis, planning, implementing, and evaluation. Nurses neediness to be able to deal with change in stressful, fast paced, hectic environments. The treatments and technology is constantly changing therefore nurses need to be able to make quick and important decisions. When people think of a n urse they normally come to the conclusion that most nurses are women. I would have thought the same, due to the qualities I have mentioned. I would like to research why men are entering the nursing profession. I note that a male would join the profession because of the hours a nurse works. Men who like to fish and hunt can work as a nurse three days a week full time and have four days to enjoy leisure activities. The nursing profession is drawing to a greater extent men into the field and usually thought for the same reasons as women. By a series of an observation, a survey, an interview, and a personal history, I will upgrade that men join the nursing profession because of money.In the observation I sat in a waiting area of a cardiology floor in a hospital. I noted the nurses running around like chickens with their heads cut off, as patients were coming back from cardiac procedures such as a cardiac catherization. The floor nurses were mostly women and only a few men fill ed the hallways. The stress on the floor was high you could just feel the tension structure as the floor became full with patients. In the observation I was looking for how many male nurses were working and what there reaction was to the stress.

The Benefits of Immigration in the United States :: Pros of Immigration, Immigrants

The Benefits of Immigration in the joined StatesAmerica is known famously throughout the world with the nickname The melting pot. The reason behind this is that America is highly diverse and has many different people. Immigrants give America the chance to know the culture of many countries. They bring in their culture, religion, economic benefits, and ideology to America. I weigh that the United States should allow good immigrants from all over the world because they bring many benefits to it. Immigrants are a positive influence on United States of America.Immigrants run through been the start of this great nation. So why argue now that allowing foreign people into America is dangerous? Some people might argue that legal immigration is the cause of overpopulation. This is not true at all because immigrants make merely half of Americas population (mruthydotcom). Out of them about 40% of them are dirty immigrants making the U.S border patrol responsible for them (world overpopulati on). Another argument that might be brought up is that immigration causes environmental damage. This pecknot be proven but we can prove that it is the American citizens themselves that cause this by their expensive lifestyle. Americans consume more per capita than the rest of the world (world overpopulation). Every one in United States has resources like water, electricity, and productive land for granted and we don?t even realize what we can do with out the resources. If you compare them to immigrants who migrated from other countries you see that immigrants have more note value for these resources. If you consider the environment they came from, they are more likely to preserve the resources available to them.People might continue to argue and bring up the issue of terrorism. thither is no solid proof that legal immigration is the cause of terrorism. Terrorism cannot be stopped and can be caused by anyone inside or out of doors the U.S. People can still fly over wherever they want to terrorize. Finally the problem of communication is brought into the argument of immigration. In a recent remove it shows that more than 60% of the immigrants that migrate tend to learn English and speak it during their daily lives and this percentage is raising (VOA news). Language is part of the few benefits that immigrants bring with their culture. United States benefits from cultures of the many immigrants that migrate to the U.S. the variation of different languages brings great benefit to the U.